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ABSTRACT
The role of plants in the promotion of health care system in Nigeria in gradually increasing. This research tries to document information on the plants and the methods of botanical preparations used in South-eastern Nigeria for the treatment of children’s ailments and also the pharmacological efficacy of some of the mostly mentioned plants. Structured questionnaires were administered to the herbal practitioners, nursing mothers and the adult dwellers to collect data on the names of plants used to treat the conditions, methods of preparation, duration of treatment, adverse effects (if any) and the method of administration of the extracted plant materials. A total of 135 plants belonging to 55 families were identified for the management of children’s health in the area. Common pediatric ailments which were said to be treated with herbal remedies by the respondents included malaria, fever, pneumonia, stomach ache, diarrhea, dysentery, measles, chicken pox/small pox, convulsion, jaundice, pile, ringworm, scabies, eczema, stubborn cough, scurvy, headaches, catarrh, wounds, boils, insect bites, food poison, cholera, and umbilical cord complications. Twenty-one (21) plants that were mostly mentioned were subjected to antimicrobial analysis against two human pathogens; Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus using in vitro methods of the disc diffusion and micro-broth dilution methods. Four plants viz; Mangifera indica, Gongronema latifolium, Chromolena odorata and Cnestis ferruginea were screened for anti-diarrheal activities using standard methods which included castor oil-induced diarrhea, gastrointestinal motility test and castor oil-induced enteropooling tests. In the antibacterial screening, Uvarea chamae (leaf), Nauclea latifolia (leaf), Azadirachta indica (leaf) exhibited highest activity against E. coli, followed by Emilia sonchifolia (leaf), Musa sapientum (leaf), Annona muricata (leaf), Alstonia bonnie (leaf), and Nauclea latifolia (root).While Musa sapientum (leaf), Nauclea latifolia (leaf), Emilia sonchifolia (leaf), Azadirachta indica (leaf), Ocimuim gratisimum (leaf), and Uvarea chamea (Root) showed highest activity against Staphylococcus aureus, followed by Uvarea chamea (leaf), Alstonia bonnei (leaf) and Bryophyllium pinnatum on disc difussion assay. In MIC assay, Azadirachta indica (bark), exhibited the highest antibacterial effect against E. coli with MIC value of 62.5µg/ml when compared with the standard drug erithromycin (5µg/ml), 62.5 µg/ml, U. chamea (leaf and root), and Mangifera indica (bark) showed activity against E. coli by having maximum lower concentrations of 125 µg/ml each and the leaf extract of N. latifolia and Sida acuta showed MIC value of 250 µg/ml, the rest of the extracts showed MIC values of 500 µg/ml - 100 0µg/ml above. In diarrhea assay, all the four plant extracts exhibited dose dependent effects on all the models with highest activity recorded in C. odrata which gave 66.1% protection from castor oil-induced diarrhea and 80.1% reduction in intra-luminal fluid accumulation. C. ferruginea gave 70.4% protection on gastrointestinal motility test, while M. indica and G. latifolium gave 61.1% and 61.5% which represented performance above 50%, indicating that all the four tested anti-diarrheal extracts hold potentials as anti-diarrheal agents.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Declaration ii
Certification iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
Table of Contents vii
List of Tables x
List of Figures xii
List of Plates xiii
Abstract xv
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1
Background of the Study 1
1.2
Statement of Problem
3
1.3
Justification of Study 4
1.4
Aim and Objectives 5
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE 6
2.1 Historical
Development of Ethno-medicine 6
2.2 Plant
Metabolites as Potential Therapeutic Agents 8
2.3 Mechanism
of Actions of Plant Secondary Compounds 9
2.4 Antimicrobials 10
2.4.1 Plants
as source of antimicrobials 11
2.5
Importance of Antimicrobial
Susceptibility Test 14
2.6 Diarrhea 14
2.6.1
Causes 15
2.6.2 Diagnosis of diarrhea 15
2.6.3 Pharmaceutical anti-diarrheic agents
isolated from medicinal plants 16
2.7 Staphilococcus
aureus and Escherichia coli as
Agents of Diarrhea 18
2.7.1 Staphylococcus aureus 18
2.7.2 Escherichia coli 18
2.8 Botany
of Plants Under Study 19
2.8.1 Uvarea chamea 19
2.8.2 Gongronema latifolium
(Benth) 20
2.8.3 Chromolaena odorata 21
2.8.4 Annona muricata 22
2.8.5 Astonia boonei 23
2.8.6 Musa sapientum 23
2.8.7 Nauclea latifolia 24
2.8.8 Euphobia hirta 25
2.8.9 Pentaclethra macrophylla
(Benth.) 28
2.8.10 Bryophyllium pinnatum 29
2.8.11 Alchornea laxiflora 32
2.8.12 Cnestis ferruginea 32
2.8.13 Ocimum gratisimum 33
2.8.14 Costus afer 35
2.8.15 Mangifera indica 36
2.8.16 Tetrapleura tetraptera 37
2.8.17 Sida acuta 39
2.8.18 Azadirachta indica 40
2.8.19 Psidium guajava 41
2.8.20 Emilia sonchifolia 42
CHAPTER 3:
MATERIALS AND METHODS 44
3.1 Ethno
Botanical Survey 44
3.1.1 Survey
area 44
3.1.2 Collection
of surveyed data 44
3.2 Antibacterial
Analysis 44
3.2.1 Study
area 44
3.2.2 Collection
and identification of plant samples 45
3.2.3 Preparation
of plant samples 45
3.2.4 Bacteria strains 45
3.2.5 Culture media 46
3.2.6 Sterility proofing of extracts 46
3.3 Disk
Susceptibility Testing 46
3.4 Minimum
Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) 47
3.5 Anti-Diarrheal
Analysis 48
3.6 Extract
Preparation 48
3.7 Animals 49
3.8 Acute
Toxicity Testing 49
3.9 Castor
Oil–Induced Diarrhea 50
3.10 Gastrointestinal
Motility Test 50
3.11 Castor
Oil-Induced Enteropooling 51
3.12 Statistical
Analysis 52
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 53
4.1 Results 53
4.1.1 Survey 53
4.1.2 Antibacterial assay 71
4.1.3 Diarrhea 78
4.1.3.1 Acute toxicity 78
4.1.3.2 Effect of extracts on castor oil induced diarrhea 80
4.1.3.3 Effect of extracts on castor oil induced gastro-intestinal motility 86
4.1.3.4 Effect of extracts on castor oil induced enteropooling 92
4.2. Discussion 98
CHAPTER 5:
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 108
5.1
Conclusion 108
5.2 Recommendations 109
References
Appendices
LIST OF TABLES
Page
2.1: Some
affirmed plants with antimicrobial potentials against diverse
drug
resistance strains 13
2.2: Pharmaceutical
products derived from indigenous medicinal plants used
in
the control of dysentery and diarrhea-like conditions 17
4.1: Demographic profile of respondents (450) 55
4.2: Plant families and number of species 56
4.3: Plants
used for the management of children’s diseases in south east 58
4.4: Ailments,
recipes, method of preparation, mode of administration
and
dosages 63
4. I.2: Antibacterial assay 73
4.5: Diameter
zone of inhibition (mm) 2mg/ml 75
4.6: Minimum
inhibitory concentration (MIC) (2mg/ml), range 1000µ/ml
4.9µ/ml 76
4.7: LD50 of extract A, B, C and D 79
4.8: Effect
of Mangifera indica on castor oil
induced diarrhea in mice 80
4.9: Effect
of Chromolena odorata on castor oil
induced diarrhea in mice 81
4.10: Effect
of Gongronema latifolium on castor
oil induced diarrhea in mice 82
4.11: Effect
of Cnestis ferruginea on castor oil
induced diarrhea in mice 83
4.12: Effect
of Mangifera indica on castor oil induced
gastro-intestinal motility 86
4.13: Effect
of Chromolena odorata on castor oil
induced gastro-intestinal
motility 87
4.14: Effect
of Gongronema latifolium on castor
oil induced gastro-intestinal
motility 88
4.15: Effect
of Cnestis ferrugenea on castor oil
induced gastro-intestinal motility89
4.16: Effect
of Mangifera indica on castor oil
induced enteropooling 92
4.17: Effect
of Chromolena odorata on castor oil
induced enteropooling 93
4.18: Effect
of Gongronema latifolium on castor
oil induced enteropooling 94
4.19: Effect
of Cnestis ferrugenea on castor oil
induced enteropooling 95
LIST OF FIGURES
4.1: Percentage
occurrence of plants used for the treatment of
children’s
disease 57
LIST OF PLATES
Page
4a: Disc
diffusion assay of N. latifolia (leaf),
N. latifolia (root), E.
sonchifolia (leaf), A. indica (leaf), U. chamea (leaf)
and A.
muricata (leaf) on E. coli 74
4b: Disc
diffusion assay of B. pinnatum (leaf), J. curcus (leaf), A. boonie
(leaf),
U. chamea (root), M. sapientum (leaf) and O. gratisimum (leaf) on
E. coli 74
4c: Disc
diffusion assay of C. odorata (leaf),
S. acuta (leaf), P. macrophyla
(leaf),
M. indica (bark), T. tetraptera (pod) and P. guajava (laef) on
E.
coli 74
4d: Disc
diffusion assay of A. indica (stem
bark), M. indica (leaf), C. afer
(leaf),
A. laxiflora (leaf), V. amygdalina (leaf), and E. hirta (leaf) on
E. coli 74
4.1a: Disc
diffusion assay of U. chamea (leaf), N. latifolia (root), N. latifolia
(leaf),
E. sonchifolia (leaf), A. indica
(leaf), and A. muricata (leaf) on
S. aureus 74
4.1b: Disc
diffusion assay of A. indica (stem
bark), A. indica (leaf),
C. afer (leaf), A. laxiflora (leaf), V.
amydalina (leaf), and E. hirta
(leaf)
on S. aureus. 74
4.1c: Disc diffusion assay of C. odorata (leaf), S. acuta (lea), P. macrophyla
(leaf), M.
indica (bark), T. tetraptera
(pod) and P. guajava (laef) on
S. aureus. 74
4.1d: Disc
diffusion assay of U. chamea (root), O. gratisimum (leaf),
A.
boonie (leaf), M. sapintum
(leaf), B. pinnatum (leaf), and J. curcus
(leaf) on S. aureus 74
4.2a: Row
A- T. tetraptera (pod), B – A. laxiflora (bark), C- M. indica (bark),
D- S.
acuta (leaf), E-A. indica (bark),
F- U. chamea (root), G- U. chamea
(leaf), H- N. latifolia (leaf). 77
4.2b: Row
A- B. pinnatum (leaf); B- A. muricata (leaf), C- A. indica
(leaf),
D- P. macrophylla (leaf), E- E. hirta (leaf), F- C. afer
(leaf), G- M. sapientum, H- P. guajava. 77
4.2c: Row
A- A. boonei, B- C. odorata (leaf), D- E- Positive control
(Erythromycintab). 77
4.2d: Row
A- A. boonei, B – A. laxiflora (bark), C- M. indica (bark),
D- A. indica (bark), E- U.
chamea (leaf), F-P.guajava,
G- A. indica (leaf), H- S. acuta
(leaf). 77
4.2e: Row
A- M. sapientum (leaf), B- P.
macrophylla (leaf), C- E. hirta
(leaf), D- E. sonchifolia (leaf), E- C. afer (leaf). 77
4.2f: Row
A-N. latifolia (root), B- B. pinnatum (leaf), C- A. muricata
(leaf), D- N. latifolia (leaf), E- C.
odorata, F- T. tetraptera
(pod), G-H, Erithromycin 77
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF
THE STUDY
Indigenous medicinal plants form a
crucial component of natural wealth of a country and several countries are very
much dependent on the indigenous medicinal plants for their primary health care
needs (Soladoye et al., 2010).
Ethno-botany is the relationship between the people of a primitive society and
plants. It accesses a region’s plants and their practical uses through the
traditional knowledge of a primitive and aboriginal people (Cox and Balick,
1996). It studies the useful plants before a commercial exploration and
eventful documentation. This indigenous knowledge passed down from one
generation to the otherin different areas of the globe has contributed
immensely to the development of different traditional system of medicine (Cox
and Balick, 1996), as well as helped in exploring and discovering different
medicinal plants to find the pharmacological basis for their uses in
traditional medicine. In actuality, botanicals are the sources of medicine for
many people of different ages in many countries of the world, where diseases
are treated primarily with traditional medicines obtained from plants. Until
recent times, plants contributed to the provision of crucial novel
pharmacologically effective compounds with many active drugs being directly or
indirectly derived from them.
Even with the prevailing
preoccupancy of synthetic chemistry as a vehicle to discover and manufacture
drugs, the contribution of plants to disease treatment and prevention is still
enormous and can never be over emphasized. Interestingly, at the beginning of
21st century, 11% of the 252 drugs considered as fundamental and
essential by WHO were exclusively of flowering plant origin (Ciddi, 2012).
Using plants as drugs in the treatment of different diseases has been an
ancient practice. The compounds derived from plants have extended past of
medical use, improved, patient absorbency and approval with no or little side
effects (Ciddi, 2012). It is fact and also interesting to note that plants used
by native people in their traditional medicinal systems are chiefly the source
of many important past and recent pharmaceuticals (WHO, 2002). To mention few
instances of the influence of traditional medicines on the development of
modern drugs and treatments, reports have it that Native American traditional
medicine provides an equal approach in treating cardiovascular ailment which
can complement modern medicine treatment (Nauman, 2007). Pharmacologically
effective properties obtained in plants e.g. artesunate, homoharringtonine and
cautharidin, are very potent and are now providing their potentials for use
incancer treatment (Efferth et al.,
2007). Search for recent and effective antibiotics especially against multiple
drug resistant microorganisms are currently on the increase in plants (Coates
and Yu, 2007).
Ethno-botanical studies are of
significant value to explore contemporary and efficient drugs from indigenous
medicinal plant resources. Currently certain percent of herbal drugs in
convectional medicines are from plant species and much synthetic drugs are generated
by using chemical substances extracted from plants (WHO, 2002). The uses of
plant species in traditional medicines provide a real and alternative
replacement of synthetic drugs in health care services for rural communities of
the developing nations (Hayta et al.,
2014). Approximately 90% of the orthodox medicines used in primary healthcare
are derived from different species of herbs (Farnsworth et al., 2001).
Greater reduction in the efficacy of multiple varieties of
antibiotic and antimicrobial agents produced has been reported and this is
greatly due to the emergency of pathogens that counter the activities of these
drugs (Levy et al., 2004). It has
been noticed that plant extracts represent a continuous attempt to find new
compounds that fight against pathogens (Dixit et al., 2013). Plant drugs still remain the primary source of
pharmaceutical agents used in orthodox medicine (Khaing, 2011). Presently, the
study of plants with respect to the chemical components of their bioactive
compounds, their uses for human health as functional foods and/or
nutriceutical, and their effects on several diseases is on the increase (Bernal
et al., 2011). Utilization of
medicinal plants in developing countries as conventional condition for the
management of good health has been widely acknowledged (UNESCO, 1996). Also,
the increasing dependency on using medicinal plants in the industrialized
organization was tracked to the extraction and development of multiple drugs
and chemotherapeutics from them as well as from traditionally used local
remedies (UNESCO, 1998). Furthermore, herbal medicines have been common in the
management of smaller diseases and also due to the higher costs of individual
health maintenance. Survey carried out by WHO on Roll back malaria program
in1998, indicated that in Ghana, Mali, Nigeria and Zambia, more than 65% of the
children with high fever were treated at home or locally with herbal medicines
(WHO, 2004). The utilization of plants as drugs dated back in the middle
Paleolithic age, which was about 60,000 years ago (Farnsworth et al., 2001).
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Healthcare services in Nigeria are
not adequately distributed and this has really contributed to extremely high
maternal mortality ratio, representing one of the highest in the world. It is
to be noted that that greater number of new antibiotics have been produced by
pharmaceutical industries in the last 30 years and there is a gradual increase
in the resistant level of microorganisms to these drugs (Karuppiah and Mustaffa
2013). WHO (2014) global observation of antimicrobial resistance disclosed that
antibiotic resistance is not a future prediction anymore; rather it is
happening right now, worldwide. Even with the fact that people have been using
these medicinal plants to cure various diseases in Southeastern Nigeria, their
usage is never or rarely documented, and information is being passed orally and
verbally from one generation to the other, which poses a negative impact on
indigenous knowledge because it might be lost at any point in time. Even with
the verbal information on these plants, the medicinal potentials and efficacies
of the acclaimed botanicals as well as their safety are not certain.
1.3 JUSTIFICATION
OF STUDY
There is need for reduction of child
morbidity and mortality, and this is actually another challenge being
encountered by the Federal government of Nigerian. It was reported that an
estimated mortality rate of children below 10 years in Nigeria hovers between
97 and 120 per thousand birth (UNICEF 2001, WHO 2005). Greater percentage of
the number of people in developing countries relies on traditional medicines
for primary healthcare system. These traditional medicines are cost effective,
safe and affordable (WHO, 2002).This suggest that local medicinal plants need
to be screened and authenticated for antimicrobial and other medicinal
properties of their extracts against known organisms which depend on the
bioactive phyto-components present in the plants (Karadi et al., 2011; Okorondu et al.,
2010; Veeramuthu et al., 2006). Iwu et al. (1999) reported that the main
advantages of using plant-obtained drugs are their relatively safety nature
which is better than synthetic alternatives, providing profound remedial
performance and cheaper treatment.
The native knowledge of indigenous
medicinal plants is very relevant in drug development and discovery, and this
is the reason for devotional efforts towards their documentation to avoid their
extinction. Traditional healing knowledge is still with the traditional healers
even from time immemorial, passing from one generation to the other with little
or no proper documentation (Cheikhyeoussef et
al., 2011). Botanicals serve as effective agents for the treatment of
various diseases because of the diverse collections of biologically active
compounds with multiple mechanisms of actions that may augment each other’s
activity or have interactive effect to providing satisfactory effects.
Therefore, it is possible that the
complicacy of disease may be addressed with a treatment strategy involving
these complex compounds. The vital functions that plant-derived therapeutics
have played in both traditional and modern health care systems is strikingly
evident with the fact that medicinal and plant preparations have been used for
thousands of years and can even be traced as the wellspring compounds in more
than 25% of currently marketed pharmaceuticals (WHO, 2002). This study therefore documents the medicinal
plants used for children’s ailment in south eastern Nigeria as an alternative
to synthetic or orthodox medicine. The pharmacological studies and toxicity
levels of some of these botanicals were also looked into, with the view to
contributing in the ongoing search for new and additional substances that could
be useful for providing new drugs.
1.4 AIM AND
OBJECTIVES
The aim of this study is:
To carry out ethno-botanical survey
and pharmacognostic analysis of indigenous medicinal plants used to treat
common childhood diseases in South East Nigeria.
Specific Objectives include to:
i.Identify and document
various medicinal plants used in the management of common childhood diseases in
South-East Nigeria.
ii. Obtain information on
their herbal preparations, duration of treatment, adverse effects (if any),
doses, and methods of administration.
iii.To ascertain the
anti-bacterial effect of some of the identified plants.
iv.Conduct in-vivo
anti-diarrheal assays of some of the acclaimed anti-diarrheal plants.
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